Communication satellite and its Impacts

“Communication satellite and its Impacts”

Hello! friends,
Today, on the behalf of Communication Satellite, I`d like to present you a presentation of the topic “Communication satellite and its impacts”.
Hereby with this presentation, I plan to explain the ever-growing world of satellite communication, how it is changing the way we perform our daily tasks and how it has affected our lives in general, how different businesses have begun to utilize these new technologies.

(A) At first, I am going to focus on its meaning and types:

Well, an artificial satellite is an advanced electronic machine which is composed of various special purpose computers that receives or sends data and information in the form of signals. It`s main characteristic is that, it revolves round the earth in a fixed orbit.
Altogether, there are 5 types of satellite which are classified under their functions. And they are: Weather satellite, Military satellite, Astronomical satellite, Navigation satellite and Communication satellite.

Note: Here as number of satellite increases with decrease in its distance from the earth as a result network coverage becomes stronger.


Actually the backbone of communication satellite is geosynchronous orbit satellite. GEO (Geosynchronous orbit) satellite is 36000 KM apart from the Earth which is kept to cover 25% of the full globe. So, this orbit needs 4 satellites for full coverage. But because of this long distance signal becomes weaker. And after some research the distance is made shorter by introducing MEO (Middle earth orbit) satellite which was 10,000KM apart but number of satellite was increased to cover the whole globe. It also faced the same problem as GEO faced, which delayed in conversation. It was because of the presence of VAN ALLAN RADIATION BELT composed of highly ionized particles which damages the signal bearing particles, which is found from 1500km-10,000km. That’s why LEO (Low Earth Orbit) satellite was introduced at 1500km apart from the earth with huge number of satellites used. Finally, LEO gives new improvement to the network coverage.

(B) Secondly, I’d like to explain its origin and evolution:

At first ,in 1945 one of the British scientist and a science fiction publisher, C. Clarke published an article on new machine that can gives us the detail information about our planet and also can make long distance communication with high speed data transmission .

AS a result, in 1957 Soviet-union launched the first satellite called Sputnik-I, which brought vast changes in the field of global communication by reducing the voice traffic and traffic in television signals between the countries. Then ultimately, United-states also launched Explorer-I in 1958. And finally it is made for international system in the leadership of Satellite corporation system in 1962.

(C) Thirdly to its impacts:]

You can see its impacts and wireless communications in everyday life as you take a walk down the streets. People everywhere using cell phones, pagers, PDA`s, etc. Though even now the U.S. make stands wireless penetration at only 35% nationwide compared to European penetration level of 65%.Thus, we the south Asian are just scratching the surface for the potential growth in this field.

Another application changing our life is an internet. Though, this technology basically still in its infancy it has brought many resources within the fingertips of the population such as- research, publishing, government sectors, education, entertainment, shopping and financial services including investments and banking.Also many health and emergency response teams including American Red cross have adopted satellite technology within their means of communication in times of trouble, especially in remote areas.

Besides these all we can receive pre-warning to save our existence if anything wrong is going to happen like natural calamities and the collision of asteroids or huge masses with our planet.
Now, following the basic principle of science i.e.” when there is induction there is also deduction”. Which mean when something is introduced with its advantages it also carries disadvantages .Likewise in some cases of;
Impossibility of repairing and maintenance that’s why there is made explosion which creates universal pollution and also by hiding highly equipped weapons and interfering in the privacy of other countries can also create wars.

(d) And finally Conclusion:

To sum up these all, satellite is a linchpin of global communication which is leading the earth to twenty-first century. But we cannot neglect its negative impacts that war creating matters should be managed and also some improvement is necessary in the repairing process and maintenance system.

A Study On Om Hospital And Research Centre

1.2 Introduction to Om hospital

OM Hospital and research centre (OHRC) was first established as OM Nursing Home in 1990 (2046 B.S). The former Om Nursing home began its operation as one of the initial private registered Nursing Home in Nepal having almost all the medical, surgical and investigative services.

Om Nursing Home started its service with 8 beds provided by 3 doctors. Gradually, OM Nursing Home started adding its beds from 8 to 25 and later to 50. In 2052 B.S. Om Nursing Home was registered as OM Hospital and Research Center (P) Ltd. under the company act of Nepal. OHRC featured 50 beds (Deluxe to general) while it was situated at Kamalpokhari, kathmandu Nepal.

In mid 1999 the concept of large-scale hospital was finalized which as a result, a large scale hospital with all the present facilities and other new and improved facilities was planned at chabahil, Kathmandu. The new OM Hospital and Research center has building construction in 4 Ropani with total area of 12 Ropanies. It started its operation from July 8^th 2002.

The dedicated and excellent service has enabled them to turn a Nursing Home into a 150 bedded hospital which provides diagnostic, preventive and curative services. The Role of this is to provide modern clinical services at competitive rates, training heath professionals, and to provide research information to the medical world. Keeping in the concept of having everything under single roof not only saves time but also provides confidence to patients by ensuring that the patients acquire reliable diagnostic services and health care of the highest quality.

The promoters of OHRC are Nepalese businessman, Doctors and social activist including both male and female, all the promoters are from Nepal. All the shareholders of the hospital act as the promoters for the hospital. There are all together 46 shareholders of the hospital.

1.3 Background of study

It helps in training the interns to know about and developed various skills and capabilities of hospital administration, management and planning. It also helps to generate the skills in solution to rising cost pressures in hospital management, successfully targeting the growth market of diagnostic as well as focusing on disease management and further development of pharmaceuticals as well as related medical services.

As far as hospitals are concerned, the cost of medical services is rising with no corresponding increase in hospital budget. As a result modern hospitals are confronted with a number of challenges. Without having proper knowledge of hospital and its various aspects, it is difficult to manage and operate hospital.

The study is therefore meant to address the issues of; needs of qualified and specialized experts in health care management, financial management, departmental planning, equipment management etc.

1.4 Purpose and objectives

Ø To study the activities performed in the hospitals from the managerial aspect.

Ø To find out the problems related to hospital management.

Ø To develop the managerial skills.

Ø To understand the workings of different clinical and administrative departments.

1.5 Methodology

Methodology can be separated into 2 ways:

They are:

(1) Primary method

(2) Secondary method

In primary methodology data and information can be observed by observation, discussion and questionnaire. We can also collect data through interaction to the staffs and department In-charge .Case study can also be done.

In secondary methodology data can be collected from websites, booklets, template etc of the, browsers etc of the respective hospital.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The study of health care management is vague. It is not just the study of its limitation but also its beneficiaries.

With the study made on hospital not only the students but trainers and trainees can be able to deal with the circumstances, helps to know about the disease, help to provide knowledge and skills and students are guided for their focus in health program running in the country.

With the help of this internship students will be able to know the working procedures in hospitals and about the services provided to the patients

Due to the vague nature various types of data could not be extracted and because of the time limitation all the information could not be collected.

1.7 Timeframe

I shall be doing internship in your hospital for 6 weeks or about 45 days. I shall be visiting your hospital regularly to extract various information and to understand overall functioning of the hospital. I shall be studying especially 2 departments of the hospital .During this internship I shall be studying about Clinical service department and Administration and Support services.

The different services and care under the above said two departments are stated below:

Clinical Service Department Administration and Support Services

Emergency Care Maintenance Department

Outpatient Services Housekeeping Department

Diagnostic Services waste Management

Inpatient Services Linen and Laundry services

Intensive care unit Security

Operation Theater Dietary

Clinical pathology/Radiology Central sterilized supply Department

2. Conclusion

OHRC is a private hospital, which provides all types of diagnostic, preventive, curative, rehabilitative services under single roof.

It’s an opportunity for me to do internship in your reputed hospital. This internship will helps to know overall functioning and develop knowledge, skill, managerial ability as well as the planning and hospital administration.

From this internship we shall recommend the hospital which will be beneficial for the organization to rectify their mistakes and review all the departments as well. The present data, information will be useful for the functioning and day to day operation of the organization. With this internship made on hospital not only the students are benefited, but the entire mass, employees, trainers are benefited providing better feedback for future concern.

I shall be remaining grateful toward this hospital forever.

Financing Health Care

Chapter 3: Financing Health Care

3.1 Alternative strategies to increase effective resources levels:

A variety of technique and policies have been suggested in various contexts to do this, including the following:

• Appraisal: techniques such as cost-effectiveness analysis may suggest alternative approaches to particular health problems which are more efficient.
• Contracting out: buying –in of services from outside sources (such as catering or cleaning), where these are shown to be more efficient than internal provision.
• An internal market: development of internal budget systems within an organization which is constituted as a quasi-market, with difference budget or cost centers selling services to each other. The assumption behind such a strategy is that such a simulation of the market will improve efficiency.
• Information dissemination: dissemination of comparative information on the performance of different parts of the health services or of an organization, in the expectation that either peer-group pressure or management incentives will lead to changes in practice.
• Involvement of clinicians in management: clinicians are typically the individuals who, through their decisions, have most influence on how resources are spent. Increasing their involvement in budgeting and management may be important as a means of developing greater awareness of cost and greater efficiency.

3.2 Criteria for choosing a financial system:

• Viability and ease of use of the system
• Revenue-generating ability
• Effects on health-care supply
• Demand-side effects including equity
• Participation in decision-making
• Multisectoralism

3.3 Alternative approaches to financing health-care:

• Fees for service and private insurance
• Tax revenue and social insurance
• Community financing
• Loans and grants

Methods of Health Care Financing

1. Government Financing (Revenue)

2. Health Insurance:

- Social Health Insurance (SHI)

- Private Health Insurance (PHI)

3. User Fee

4. Community Financing

- Community Health Insurance (CHI)

- Micro- Health Insurance: Special form of CHI

- Community drug programme (CDP)

5. Public-Private Collaboration

6. External Development Partners (EDPs)

1. Government Financing

•General Taxation:

- General Tax Revenue may be a stable source of financing

•Earmark Tax:

- particular tax for health care

- e.g., Cigarette/Liquor Tax for Health Tax fund

2. Health Insurance

What is Health Insurance?

Health insurance is a means of financial protection against the risk of unexpected and expensive health care.

• Social Health Insurance ( SHI) was first introduced in Germany in 1883

•In Chili, SHI was introduced in 1920s

•In Asia, China, Indonesia, the Philipines, Mongolia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan, Singapore have already introduced SHI

Health Insurance (HI)

HI is stable source of health care financing

Health Insurance serves two principal Functions – for economic welfare of nation

1. Insurance pools together the financial risks facing a large group of people – (Risk Sharing)
2. Insurance enables individuals to transfer their risks to an insurance plan
1. Social Health Insurance (SHI)
2. Social Health Insurance: for formal Sector

Two characteristics that distinguish from PHI

- Social Health Insurance is compulsory in an eligible group,

- SHI can not be voluntary

Voluntary insurance markets fail, because of adverse selection and cream skimming

SHI premiums and benefits are described in social compact (laws)-legislation

Social Health Insurance is not right to all

Benefits are usually related to contribution

Contribution rates and benefits can not be unilaterally changed

Contributions (premiums) SHI are earmarked

Government, employers and employees – tripartite based

Private Health Insurance

PHI is offered by non-profit or for-profit insurance companies

Consumers voluntarily chose insurance package

Private insurance are offered on an individual basis and group basis

3. User fees

User fees: patients pay a fee to the provider at the point of service use

The amount of user fee can be determined:

a) The amount can be the full charge

b) As co-payment: a flat amount preset for each visit

c) Coinsurance: Patients responsible to pay a percent of full charge

Cost-Recovery

Break-Even Point:

At this point, Costs = Revenue

Profit making organizations always try to keep Revenue > Cost

Public facilities in a state of

Cost > Revenue

Cost Sharing, User charges, CDP etc minimizes the difference between Cost and Revenue

If price elasticity of demand is little, User fee would be good method

If price elasticity is high, User fee could not serve very well

Low income people are likely to consume less health care

From equity ground, user fee is not preferred

Cross-subsidization: charge more who can afford and subsidies to poor and vulnerable groups

4. Community Health Financing (CHF)

Community financing is based on two Principles

- Community cooperation

- Self reliance

CHF may be encouraged and supported by the government through its polices, regulations and financial and technical support

It is thought as a cost recovery tool

11 countries Experiences on CHF
China,Vietnam,Mongolia, The Philipines, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, PNG,Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia

Five categories of community level health financing mechanisms:

•Voluntary Health insurance

•Compulsory Health Insurance

•Pre-payment Health Accounts

•User fees

•Revolving Drug funds

5. Public-Private Collaboration

Health care systems are also financed by Public-Private Collaboration

One way to tap resources that have moved away from the public sector

Private beds in public hospitals

Services contracted to private providers

Contract private general practitioners/Brain drain problem

Payment Mechanism

vAllocation of resources to health sector organizations and individuals in return for some activities.

vPayment encompasses both funding and remuneration

Some payment mechanisms are:

•Fee-for-Service

- Payment is made to health care organization only after a service has been provided

- Fee-for-service encourage technical efficiency ( Cost minimization)

- Incentive to increase number of services

•Diagnosis based:

- Provider or Health Care Organization receives a fixed, pre-specified payment for each instances

- Monetary incentive to increase number of cases

- Monetary incentive to decrease services per case

•In industrialized countries, case-based payment and capitation method are popular

Capitation:

Organization receives a fixed, pre-specified amount of money per time period (e.g., month, year) for each individual

- Monetary incentive to increase the number of enrollees

- Monetary incentive to decrease services per enrollee

- Provider is responsible to meet defined health needs

- The amount of money per person is set ahead of time

- Does not vary with actual service provided

- Providers bears financial risk

- provides incentive to minimize cost, provides only necessary treatment

•Global Budget

-An organization or providers receives a total budget for a defined period of time

§Salary:

- Only for remuneration

- Incentive to reduce effort

Sources of Government Financing in Nepal:

•General Taxation (Revenue)

•Foreign Aid

•Deficit Financing

–Revenue < Expenditure (Deficit Budget)

•Internal Loan

•External Loan

Health Planning

1. Concept and Approaches to Planning:

Planning is needed everywhere. Everyone makes plan for their daily life. It is fundamental. Planning is one of five major processes of management.

1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Leading
4. Staffing
5. Controlling

Therefore being a health care manager one must have clear understanding of planning especially health care planning. Health is a state of complete mental, physical and social well-being not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Therefore there are basically three components of health and while planning health care one should have to consider all these things. Health care planning can be disintegrated into two:

Health care services provided to individuals or community by agents of the health services or professionals for the purpose of promoting, maintaining and restoring health.

Planning – process of making decision in the present to bring about an outcome in the future. It involves determining appropriate goals and means to achieve them stating assumptions, developing premises and reviewing alternative course of action.

Health care Planning: making decisions and choosing alternative course of action in the present for effective and efficient health care services to be provided in the future. Health care planning is a fundamental management function which includes decision making and commitment. It is cyclic or continuous process. Health care planning basically consists of following elements:

• What (resources)
• How (to do)
• Who (will do)
• When (it should be done)

Characteristics of effective health care planning:

• Flexibility
• Tine table and sequence
• Not too vague
• Adaptability
• Neither too idealistic nor too limited

Health care planning is a part of national Development Plan

Need of health care planning

Scenario in health care:

• Limited health resources to meet unlimited health needs and demands
• High wasteful expenditure
• Quality is major consideration

Why health care planning?

• To match the limited resources with many problems
• To eliminate wasteful expenditure in health sector
• To avoid duplication of work
• To develop best course of action to accomplish predetermined objectives

1.1 Planning Models

Planning models are those models that are used for doing planning for any of the works in advance for the future purpose. There are different types of planning models in management

1.1 Planning model:

Planning models are the planning practice that is practiced by any organization for the planning purpose to fulfill their needs and demands for the fulfillment of the organizational goals and objectives through the optimum utilization or the available resources in an effective and efficient way.

Different planning models are used in a planning process by the organization. They are:

• Comprehensive rationalism
• Mixed scanning
• Incrementalism

Comprehensive rationalism:

An explicit activity that attempts to determine how resources are used to further the specific goals of an organization. Common sense might suggest that any such decisions about the future required a sequence of broad logical steps such as those set which includes; what is the situation?, where do we want to go?, which possible alternatives are there for action?, which alternative is best?, take action. Such series of steps is often depicted as a continuous cycle. The first stage analyses the current position or problem to be solved. Next the aims (where we want to be) are decided. All the possible alternative courses of action are listed, and assessed as to their feasibility and capability to achieving the aims. Lastly, having decided on the most appropriate alternative, action is taken to implement it. The cycle then starts again with a reassessment or evaluation of the situation.

Mixed scanning:

The difficulties of operating such comprehensive system are recognized by proponents of mixed scanning. Here a deliberate decision is taken to narrow down the area of maneuverability by focusing planning attention on selected areas of interest. An early stage in the modified cycle involves determining the priority or problem areas for planning, and it is within these that the examination of options occurs. Mixed scanning is so called because it advocates a broad sweep or scan of the whole health sector, which then forms the basis for the more detailed examination of selected areas for planning action. Such an approach is less costly in terms of time and information resources. Its selection of priority areas for alternatives certainly reflects the reality of much planning. However, it raises a fundamental question: on what basis is such screening to occur?

Increamentalism:

The third approach to planning, incrementalism, recognizes the political nature of planning in a far more overt manner than either of the previous approaches. The term ‘political’ is used here in a wide sense, and , through inclusive of ideology and party politics, is by no means confined to these. It is used to cover analysis and action that recognizes the nature and effect of different interest groups in society, whether based on class, employment or business, area of residence, professional or trade union association, religion, ethnicity, gender, or any of the other variables which determine an individual’s values, loyalties, and actions.

Planning, as it is seen in this third approach, has been described as a process of ‘muddling through’ or as a series of ‘disjointed steps’ moving in an incremental manner towards the set goal, the degree of movement at any time being determined by the political context

1.2 Realistic Rational Planning:

It is perhaps more accurate to describe the realistic rational planning as a planning spiral, with the end-point of each cycle forming the start of the next cycle, but at a higher plane.

Situation Analysis:

The first step in such a process involves an assessment of the present situation. This is often referred to as a situation analysis. This analyses the present situation from various perspectives:

• It examines the current and projected characteristics of the population including its demography
• It looks at the physical and socio-economic characteristics of the area and its infrastructure
• It analyses the policy and political environment including existing health policies
• As essential part is the analysis of the health needs of the population
• It would also look at the services provided both by the non-health sector and by the health sector itself. The latter would focus on facilities provided, their utilization and service gaps, together with organizational arrangements
• The situation analysis would also examine the resources used in the provision of services and their current efficiency, effectiveness, equity and quality of services.

Priority setting:

The second stage of the planning spiral involves the determination of hierarchy of goals, objectives and targets of an organization- in other words, what it wants to achieve. This will be influenced by the situational analysis, especially the health needs, and by the broad policy objectives of the organization or state. Any realistic planning system must ensure that the priorities set are feasible within the social and political climate, and within the context of available resources. In practice this is likely to mean that within any one planning period only some problems are addressed. Clear criteria for the selection of these priority problems are needed. Such criteria should include political feasibility.

Option appraisal:

The third stage involves the generation and assessment (often called option appraisal) of the various options for achieving the set objectives and targets. For any target there may be a number of ways of achieving it. Although it is often worth while and productive at this stage to allow a wide variety of creative ideas to emerge, it is important that this set of option is quickly reduced, without too sophisticated analysis, to a reasonable shortlist. Such preliminary criteria are in practice often applied subconsciously.

Each of remaining options on the shortlist is looked at in turn, and is assessed in three ways:

• The impact of each is examined to see its effects on the health target set.
• The resources implications will ne examined, both to look at the efficiency with which each alternative could meet the targets (known as its cost-effectiveness) and to determine whether overall option can be afforded, given resource constraints.
• The feasibility of each approach will be examined to see whether there are other barriers to its success.

Programming and budgeting:

The option appraisal stage will result in preferred option, which will then form part of the plan. This process will be carried out for each priority areas and its associated set of targets. The programming stage translates the results of the earlier decision into a series of programmes, each with a budget. The result of this is the plan document, which is a statement of intent concerning the activities over the plan period.

Implementation and Monitoring:

The penultimate stage involves the implementation of the plan, a neglected yet essential part of planning. This involves transforming the broad programmes into more specific timed and budgeted sets of task and activities, and involves the drawing up of a more operational plan or a work plan. This is the type of planning that we have described earlier as activity planning. An essential part of this process is the monitoring of the implementation of these activities.

Evaluation:

Lastly, a process of evaluation of the plan provides the basis for the next situational analysis, and hence afresh leads in to the planning spiral just described. Evaluation shares many of the characteristics of appraisal.

1.3 Public and Private Sector Planning:

The preceding sections described general approaches to allocative planning. The general principles and stages of planning outlined above are as valid for a private health-care provider as for a public sector provider. Planning for institutions within the private sector requires a similar combination of technical skills and political analysis. The parameters and values judgments which form the planning framework are however, bound to be different contents for their plans.

Comparison between the business and public sector planning

Private(Business) sector planning	Public sector planning
Determination of mission statement	Setting of goals
Analysis of strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis) (including marketing)	Situation analysis (including needs assessment)
Determination of strategy	Option appraisal and monitoring
Operational plans	Operational plans
Implementation	Implementation
Feedback	Evaluation and monitoring

· The situational analysis needs to be far broader than that of a pure service provider, such as the private sector organization. It needs to look at the sector as a whole, rather than just at the ministry’s own activities and resources. It also needs to assess the broad causes of ill health, so as to allow the possibility for wider intersectoral strategies to be developed.

· The option appraisal must include the potential contribution that other sector can be encouraged or required to make to the state’s overall health goals. Thus options for health promotion must not be restricted to health service activities, but can include regulatory activity, legislation, and collaboration with other non-health agencies.

1.4 Level of planning: With in three groups of organizations – public, private-for-profit, and NGO – there are likely also to be different levels of planning within the organization. Although the principles and broad processes will be similar at each level, as one moves down to the lower levels plans will be more specific with the central plans providing the broad strategies envelope into which they are placed. Each level therefore needs to take account of plans being developed both in other organizations working at the same horizontal level and also plans of both higher and lower levels in the system the vertical dimension.